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Glossary

Plain-language meanings of words used on this site. Many are general definitions written by volunteers and labeled Unverified; where a definition quotes a constitution or statute we read, it is labeled Verified. Unofficial education, not legal advice.

Definitions

Agenda
The list of items a public body will discuss at a meeting. Under the Brown Act, a regular meeting's agenda must be posted at least 72 hours ahead Verified1.
Agenda packet
The agenda plus the staff reports and documents for each item. Williams posts packets as PDFs; many older ones are scanned images Verified2.
Amendment
A change added to a constitution. The U.S. Constitution has 27 amendments Verified34.
Anticommandeering rule
The rule that the federal government can't order states, or their cities and counties, to enact or enforce a federal regulatory program (Printz) Verified5.
As-applied challenge
An argument that a law was used unconstitutionally on particular facts, as opposed to a facial challenge, which says the words themselves are invalid in every case. Our explanation, not a quote Unverified6.
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, including freedom of speech and assembly (First Amendment) and protection from unreasonable searches (Fourth Amendment) Verified3.
Brown Act
California's open-meetings law for local bodies such as a city council (Gov. Code §54950 and following) Verified7. See the Brown Act guide.
California Public Records Act (CPRA)
The state law that lets anyone ask for records held by public agencies (Gov. Code §7920.000 and following) Verified89. See the Public Records Act guide.
Case law (holding)
Law made by court decisions. The holding is the part of a decision that answers the legal question; it is what later courts follow Unverified10.
Charter city
A California city with its own charter, a kind of local constitution, which gives it more control over its own municipal affairs. Williams is not a charter city Unverified10 Verified11.
Closed session
A part of a meeting closed to the public, allowed only for topics the Brown Act lists, such as some personnel matters, labor negotiations, litigation and real estate Verified1213141516.
Codified through
The last ordinance that has been added to the published code. A search snippet says the official Williams code on Municode is codified through Ordinance 275-25 (December 10, 2025) Unverified17. Newer ordinances may not appear yet.
Constitution
The founding law of a country or state. It sets up the government and limits its power. Both the U.S. and California have one Verified1819.
Constitutional revision
A change so broad it alters the basic plan of the California Constitution. Voters can amend the constitution by initiative but can't revise it that way; revisions go through the Legislature or a convention (Art. XVIII) Verified19.
Cure-and-correct demand
A written demand asking a public body to undo an action taken in violation of certain Brown Act rules. It must be sent within 90 days of the action (30 days for some agenda violations) (Gov. Code §54960.1) Verified20.
Due process
The Fourteenth Amendment says no state shall “deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law” Verified4. In plain terms: fair procedures, such as notice and a chance to be heard, and laws clear enough to follow Unverified10.
Equal protection
The Fourteenth Amendment says no state shall “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws” Verified4; the California Constitution has a similar rule (Art. I, §7) Verified19. In plain terms: the government must have a valid reason to treat people differently Unverified10.
Excessive fines
A fine so out of proportion to the offense that the Constitution forbids it. The Eighth Amendment and Art. I, §17 of the California Constitution both ban excessive fines, and the federal ban applies to cities Verified31921. A fine is unconstitutional if it is "grossly disproportional to the gravity of the offense" Verified22. See the Williams page.
Field preemption (“occupying the field”)
When the state has covered a subject so fully that there is no room left for local rules, even ones that do not directly contradict state law Unverified6.
Fund balance (reserves)
The money left in a fund after its spending, kept for later Unverified10.
General Fund
The city's main account. It pays for everyday services such as police, parks and planning Unverified10. See the city budget.
General law city
A California city without its own charter, so it runs under the state's general laws. The city says Williams “was made a General Law City on May 20, 1920” Verified11.
General laws
State laws that apply across California. City ordinances may not be “in conflict with general laws” (Cal. Const., Art. XI, §7) Verified19. Which state laws count as “general laws” can be a hard legal question Unverified10.
General tax
A local tax for general government purposes. A city can impose, extend or increase one only with a majority vote of the electorate (Art. XIII C, §2(b)) Verified19.
Gift of public funds
Giving public money or property to a private party without a public purpose, which Article XVI, §6 of the California Constitution forbids Verified19.
Government Code
One of California's collections of state statutes. It includes the Brown Act and the Public Records Act Verified78.
Holding
What a court actually decided on the facts before it. The rest of an opinion explains the decision. Later courts follow holdings. Our explanation, not a quote Unverified6.
Incorporation
How the Bill of Rights came to limit states and cities. It first applied only to the federal government; through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause, courts have applied almost all of it to the states Verified2321. See how it happened.
Infraction
A minor violation, usually punished by a fine and not by jail Unverified10. Check the code section and its penalty chapter for what applies.
Initiative
A way for voters to propose a new ordinance by petition. A city initiative petition needs signatures of 10% of registered voters; the council must then adopt it, put it on the ballot, or order a report first (Elec. Code §9215) Verified24.
Inspection warrant
A court order, "signed by a judge of a court of record," that lets an official inspect property for code compliance Verified25. Outside emergencies, an inspector without consent generally needs one Verified2627. See entry and inspection.
Jurisdiction
The area or subjects over which a government body or court has authority Unverified10.
Margin of error
How far a survey estimate could be from the true value. A wide margin means the estimate is uncertain Unverified10.
Median income
The middle value: half of households earn more and half earn less Unverified10.
Misdemeanor
A crime more serious than an infraction and less serious than a felony; it can carry jail time Unverified10.
Municipal code (WMC)
The Williams Municipal Code: the city's ordinances, organized by title and chapter. The official version is on Municode Verified17.
Oath of office
The oath every California public officer and employee takes to support and defend the U.S. and California constitutions (Art. XX, §3) Verified19.
One-time money
An amount paid or received once, as opposed to an amount that repeats every year Unverified10.
Ordinance
A local law adopted by the City Council. Most ordinances become part of the municipal code Unverified10.
Per capita income
Total income divided by the number of people, so it is an average per person Unverified10.
Police power
A government's general power to make rules for public health, safety and welfare. The California Constitution lets a city make “local, police, sanitary, and other ordinances” that do not conflict with general laws (Art. XI, §7) Verified19.
Preemption
When a higher law displaces a lower one. California courts have said a local rule conflicts with state law when it duplicates it, contradicts it, or enters a field the state fully occupies Unverified6. See Three layers of law.
Public comment
Time at a meeting when members of the public may speak. The council must allow it on matters within its jurisdiction, may set reasonable time limits, and may not prohibit criticism (Gov. Code §54954.3) Verified28.
Public record
A writing about the public's business kept by a public agency. The California Constitution says “the writings of public officials and agencies shall be open to public scrutiny” (Art. I, §3(b)(1)) Verified19; the Public Records Act sets the details and exemptions Unverified8.
Public trust doctrine
The rule that the state holds navigable waters and tidelands in trust for the public. California courts say it protects navigable waters from harm caused by diverting their tributaries (National Audubon) Verified29.
Recall
"Recall is the power of the electors to remove an elective officer" (Cal. Const., Art. II, §13) Verified19. For city officers, the signatures needed depend on the number of registered voters (Elec. Code §11221) Verified30. See recalling a city officer.
Referendum
A way for voters to challenge a new ordinance. The petition must be filed within 30 days after the ordinance is adopted, signed by 10% of the city's registered voters; the council must then repeal it or put it to a vote (Elec. Code §9237) Verified31.
Resolution
A formal council decision that is not an ordinance. Budgets, many fees and many contracts are adopted by resolution Unverified6. The label doesn't decide whether voters can challenge it by referendum: a legislative act can be challenged even if it is called a resolution, and an administrative act can't Verified32.
Scarcity
People want more than there is, so every choice gives something up. For a city, the money is limited, so spending on one thing means not spending on another Unverified10.
Section 1983
The federal law (42 U.S.C. §1983) that lets people sue state and local officials, and cities, for violating federal constitutional rights. A city is liable for its own policy or custom (Monell) Verified33.
Selective enforcement
Enforcing a law against some people and not others. Ordinary unevenness is not a constitutional violation; "deliberate invidious discrimination" in enforcement is, and can be raised as a defense Verified3435. See charging discretion.
Special tax
A local tax for a specific purpose. It needs approval by a two-thirds vote of the electorate (Art. XIII C, §2(d)) Verified19.
Staff report
A memo from city staff in the agenda packet explaining an item, usually with a recommendation and its cost (“fiscal impact”) Unverified10.
Statute
A law passed by a legislature: Congress for federal law, the California Legislature for state law Unverified10. Read California statutes on leginfo Verified36.
Supremacy Clause
Article VI of the U.S. Constitution: the Constitution and federal laws made under it are “the supreme Law of the Land,” binding state judges even if state law says otherwise Verified18.
Takings
When government takes private property for public use, it must pay "just compensation" (Fifth Amendment). California adds property "damaged" and requires payment first (Art. I, §19) Verified319. Keeping more than the debt in a tax sale can be a taking Verified37.
Trade-off
Choosing one thing means giving up another. Economists ask what a choice costs in what you give up, not only what it gains Unverified10.
Vagueness (“void for vagueness”)
The idea that a law can be struck down if ordinary people cannot tell what it bans, or if it gives officials too much room to decide who breaks it Unverified10.

Sources cited on this page

  1. Gov. Code §54954.2 (Brown Act: 72-hour agenda posting) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: at least 72 hours before a regular meeting the agenda must be posted, with a brief general description of each item, including closed-session items; generally no action on items not on the agenda. ↗
  2. City Council agendas and minutes (official index) (City of Williams; official; accessed 2026-11-09) Dynamic page; packets are linked PDFs. Many older packets are scanned images without searchable text. ↗
  3. The Bill of Rights: A Transcription (U.S. National Archives; official; accessed 2026-10-17) ↗
  4. The Constitution: Amendments 11-27 (U.S. National Archives; official; accessed 2026-10-17) ↗
  5. Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898 (1997) (Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Full opinion text read on the LII copy. Quotes on this site were machine-checked against that text. ↗
  6. Citizen research notes behind this site (Oct 16, 2026) (Site volunteers (not public yet); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-16) Volunteer research notes (October 16-17, 2026), not published. Anything cited only to these notes is labeled Unverified. The link points to the City site because the notes have no public URL. ↗
  7. Ralph M. Brown Act, Gov. Code §§54950-54963 (official) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text opened directly on Oct 29, 2026 (§54950, the first section of the Brown Act, Gov. Code §§54950-54963). Earlier automated attempts were blocked; we did not bypass any block. ↗
  8. California Public Records Act, Gov. Code §7920.000 et seq. (official) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Opens §7920.000, the first section of the CPRA (Division 10 of the Government Code); read directly on Oct 29, 2026: it names the division the California Public Records Act. ↗
  9. Gov. Code §7922.525 (CPRA: inspection and reasonably segregable portions) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: records may be inspected during office hours, and any reasonably segregable portion must be made available after deleting the exempt portions. ↗
  10. Plain-language definitions by site volunteers (general knowledge) (Site volunteers; unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-18) Written from general knowledge and not checked against a statute or court decision. The link is where to check California law yourself. ↗
  11. Community page (“made a General Law City on May 20, 1920”) (City of Williams; official; accessed 2026-10-16) Says: “It was made a General Law City on May 20, 1920.” ↗
  12. Gov. Code §54962 (Brown Act: no closed session unless expressly authorized) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: no closed session may be held by a local legislative body except as expressly authorized by the chapter (and a few listed other laws). ↗
  13. Gov. Code §54956.8 (closed session: real property negotiations) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: closed session allowed to instruct negotiators on the price and terms of payment for buying, selling, exchanging or leasing real property. ↗
  14. Gov. Code §54956.9 (closed session: pending litigation) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: closed session allowed to confer with legal counsel about pending litigation. ↗
  15. Gov. Code §54957 (closed session: security threats and personnel) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: closed session allowed on threats to public services or facilities, and to consider the appointment, employment, evaluation of performance, discipline or dismissal of a public employee. ↗
  16. Gov. Code §54957.6 (closed session: labor negotiators) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) Official text read directly on Oct 29, 2026: closed session allowed to meet with the agency's designated representatives about salaries, benefits and other terms of employment. ↗
  17. Williams Municipal Code (official, Municode) (Municode for the City of Williams; official; accessed 2026-10-16) Codified through Ord. 275-25 (Dec 10, 2025), per a search snippet. Municode blocked automated access; not bypassed. ↗
  18. The Constitution of the United States: A Transcription (U.S. National Archives; official; accessed 2026-10-17) ↗
  19. Constitutions of California and the United States, 2025-26 edition (PDF) (California State Senate; official; accessed 2026-10-17) California Constitution as last amended November 5, 2024. ↗
  20. Gov. Code §54960.1 (Brown Act: demand to cure or correct) (California.Public.Law (copy of California statute); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Unofficial copy of the statute, read directly (the Justia copy blocked automated checks; text identical). Confirm on leginfo before relying on it. ↗
  21. Timbs v. Indiana (2019), No. 17-1091 (Cornell Legal Information Institute (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on Cornell's Legal Information Institute (free copy, not the official U.S. Reports). ↗
  22. United States v. Bajakajian, 524 U.S. 321 (1998) (Cornell Legal Information Institute (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on Cornell's Legal Information Institute (free copy, not the official U.S. Reports). ↗
  23. Barron v. Baltimore, 32 U.S. (7 Pet.) 243 (1833) (Cornell Legal Information Institute (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on Cornell's Legal Information Institute (free copy, not the official U.S. Reports). ↗
  24. Elections Code §9215 (initiative: 10% of registered voters) (California.Public.Law (copy of California statute); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Unofficial copy of the statute, read directly (FindLaw copy was blocked to automated checks). Confirm on leginfo before relying on it. ↗
  25. Code of Civil Procedure §1822.50 (inspection warrant defined) (California.Public.Law (copy of California statute); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-22) Unofficial copy of the statute, read directly. Confirm on leginfo before relying on it. ↗
  26. Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523 (1967) (Cornell Legal Information Institute (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on Cornell's Legal Information Institute (free copy, not the official U.S. Reports). ↗
  27. Gleaves v. Waters (1985) 175 Cal.App.3d 413 (Justia (copy of California Court of Appeal opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on a free copy, not the official reporter. Confirm before relying on it. ↗
  28. Gov. Code §54954.3 (Brown Act: public comment) (California.Public.Law (copy of California statute); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Unofficial copy of the statute, read directly (the Justia copy blocked automated checks; text identical). Confirm on leginfo before relying on it. ↗
  29. National Audubon Society v. Superior Court (1983) 33 Cal.3d 419 (Caselaw Access Project, Harvard Law School (copy of California opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Full opinion text read in the Caselaw Access Project copy. Quotes on this site were machine-checked against that text. ↗
  30. Elections Code §11221 (recall: signatures for local officers) (California.Public.Law (copy of California statute); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Unofficial copy of the statute, read directly. Confirm on leginfo before relying on it. ↗
  31. Elections Code §9237 (referendum petition: 30 days, 10%) (California.Public.Law (copy of California statute); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Unofficial copy of the statute, read directly (FindLaw copy was blocked to automated checks). Confirm on leginfo before relying on it. ↗
  32. Midway Orchards v. County of Butte (1990) 220 Cal.App.3d 765 (Justia; unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-31) Quotes Hopping v. Council of City of Richmond (1915): "if a legislative act is ... done, the referendum may be invoked whether the measure is denominated an ordinance or resolution." Also: "many administrative acts not subject to referendum are undertaken by resolution." Notes the municipal referendum statutes "refer exclusively to ordinances." ↗
  33. Monell v. Department of Social Services, 436 U.S. 658 (1978) (Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Full opinion text read on the LII copy. Quotes on this site were machine-checked against that text. ↗
  34. Murgia v. Municipal Court (1975) 15 Cal.3d 286 (Justia (copy of California Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on a free copy, not the official reporter. Confirm before relying on it. ↗
  35. Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886) (Cornell Legal Information Institute (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on Cornell's Legal Information Institute (free copy, not the official U.S. Reports). ↗
  36. California Law: codes and statutes (official) (California Legislative Information; official; accessed 2026-10-29) The official place to read California statutes; opened directly on Oct 29, 2026 (lists every California code, including the Government Code and Elections Code). ↗
  37. Tyler v. Hennepin County (2023), No. 22-166 (Cornell Legal Information Institute (copy of U.S. Supreme Court opinion); unofficial / third-party; accessed 2026-10-23) Opinion text read on Cornell's Legal Information Institute (free copy, not the official U.S. Reports). ↗

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